[nabs-l] [rehab] Blind and Visually Impaired Adult Rehabilitation and Employment Survey:Final Results
melissa Green
lissa1531 at gmail.com
Tue Nov 12 04:31:11 UTC 2013
thanks arielle for sharing this.
Best,
Melissa R. Green and Pj
COAGDU President
"We love because he first loved us."
----- Original Message -----
From: "Arielle Silverman" <arielle71 at gmail.com>
To: <nabs-l at nfbnet.org>
Sent: Monday, November 11, 2013 5:11 PM
Subject: [nabs-l] [rehab] Blind and Visually Impaired Adult Rehabilitation
and Employment Survey:Final Results
This is the research report I was talking about.
---------- Forwarded message ----------
From: Edward Bell <ebell at latech.edu>
Date: Thu, 4 Apr 2013 08:33:25 -0500
Subject: [rehab] Blind and Visually Impaired Adult Rehabilitation and
Employment Survey:Final Results
To: NOMCT Committee <certificationtrainersnomct at lists.nbpcb.org>, NOMC
mailing list <nomc at nbpcb.org>, nclb at lists.nbpcb.org,
pibe-division at nfbnet.org, Rehab Mailing list <rehab at nfbnet.org>
Blind and Visually Impaired Adult Rehabilitation and Employment
Survey:Final Results
By Edward C. Bell, Ph.D. and Natalia M. Mino
Edward C. Bell, Ph.D., serves as director of the Professional
Development and Research Institute on Blindness, Louisiana Tech
University.
Abstract
Individuals who are legally blind or visually impaired in the United
States have long suffered high rates of unemployment. The purpose of
this study was to determine the current employment status of these
individuals and to analyze its consistency with federal reports. The
study also examined demographic factors, education, civic involvement,
and rehabilitation experiences of this population in order to
determine whether some of the factors could be identified as
contributing to the employment outcomes. Results showed that the
employment rate for individuals who are legally blind/visually
impaired is 37%, which is consistent with previous research. Findings
show that a gender gap still exists, with a significant difference in
annual earnings between men and women. Education and
rehabilitation-related factors seemed to impact employment outcomes;
where higher educational attainment is associated with better
employment outcomes. In addition, those individuals who were trained
under the Structured Discovery approach were more likely to be
employed and to have higher earnings than those who did not. Finally,
for individuals who read Braille on a weekly basis and used a white
cane, the likelihood of being employed and receiving higher earnings
was higher than those who did not use these tools.
Keywords
Rehabilitation Research, Employment Outcomes, Education, training
centers, Braille, Cane Travel; Structured Discovery
Adult Rehabilitation and Employment Survey
This study sought to describe the current employment status of
individuals who are blind and visually impaired (VI) in the U.S. and
to examine its consistency with federal reports. In addition, it
explored those factors that might have an impact on employment status
for this section of the population. In order to do so, a summary of
the most current federal data is included, followed by a review of the
literature that analyze the employment situation of people with
disabilities in the U.S. and, more specifically, those factors related
to an increase in employment outcomes by blind and VI individuals.
Employment Status of Blind and VI Individuals: Federal Reports
The 2010 U.S. Census reports that the total population in the United
States is 308,746,538. According to the provisional report for the
2010 National Health Interview Survey, 21.5 million American adults
age 18 and older reported experiencing vision loss (defined as
individuals who reported that they have trouble seeing, even when
wearing glasses or contact lenses, as well as those who reported that
they are blind or unable to see at all). By December 2011, the Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported that approximately 2 million
individuals from 16 to 64 years old were identified as having vision
loss according to the Current Population Survey (CPS) for all working
age adults (16 to 64 years of age). Of them, 63.6% were not in the
civilian labor force (i.e., those who were identified as "not in the
labor force" were not actively looking for work during the reported
month, and thus not included in the unemployment rate, even though
they were not employed as well). Of the 36.4% who were in the labor
force, 13.8% were unemployed. However, the employment to population
ratio showed that of the 2 million working age adults with vision
loss, only 31.3% were employed (American Foundation for the Blind,
2012). These data are similar to that of Bell (2010) who reported that
by 2007, only 37% of adults who were legally blind exiting the
vocational rehabilitation (VR) system were achieving competitive
employment.
The present study analyzed how the above reports are reflected in the
current employment situation of blind and VI individuals. And, more
importantly, whether specific rehabilitation, education, and/or civic
factors could be identified that might be indicative of increased
employment.
Disability, Employment, and the Vocational Rehabilitation System
In the pursuit of employment, each person, especially those with
significant disabilities, has to navigate a whole host of social
services, institutions, and processes that are aimed at assisting them
in achieving their vocational goals. These include the state-federal
VR process (Schriner, 2001; Schroeder, 2000); public financial
support, such as Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (Vaughn & Omvig, 2005); and an
entire array of education and employment preparation institutions
(Amato, 2009; Hershenson, 1998; Jeanmarie & Strauser, 2000). For those
who have successfully achieved employment, these social systems
worked, in some form or fashion, to facilitate success. While for many
others, these same systems have served as a land minefield, with
continual road blocks, delays, and dead ends.
The most commonly reported research in the area of employment outcomes
comes from secondary analysis of existing databases, such as the RSA
VR closure system, to identify variables that correlate with
employment outcomes. For example, Randolph (2004) found that
disability status was the variable that presented the strongest
negative correlation with employment. The author determined that
disability status was a strong negative predictor of employment,
particularly of being competitively employed. He found that females
with a disability, who were less educated and who had young children,
were less likely to be employed.
A study by Ozawa and Yeo (2006) compared the employment outcomes of
individuals with mild and severe disabilities with those having no
disability (it is important to notice that of the factors that the
authors used to classify individuals into mild or severe disability
groups, the use of a wheelchair, white cane, or similar aid for more
than 6 months was one of the most relevant). The results showed that
the rate of employment was inversely related to the degree of
disability. From the group of respondents with no disability 83.04%
were employed, while those in the mild disabilities group and the
severe disabilities group were employed at 69.94% and 51.54%
respectively. These authors found, as did Randolph (2004), that
disability affects two main aspects of work performance: the
likelihood of working and monthly earnings. The probabilities of
working were significantly less for respondents with severe
disabilities than for those with mild or with no disability. Monthly
earnings of both respondents with mild disabilities and with severe
disabilities were lower than those of people with no disability.
According to Baldwin and Schumacher (2002), not only the chances of
obtaining a job and earnings are negatively correlated to disability
status, but also job mobility. Workers with disabilities were more
likely to experience involuntary job changes than nondisabled workers.
Martz and Xu (2008) analyzed the demographic and service-related
predictors of employment among individuals with disabilities who
received VR services and who exited from a state-federal system in a
U.S. southern state. Having a sample composed of clients who received
VR services from the Tennessee Division of the Rehabilitation Services
(TDRS) during the years of 1998-2004, this study showed that those
individuals with learning disabilities had the highest employment rate
(93.3%) and the ones that presented the lowest employment rate were
individuals with visual disabilities (78.7%). For this later group,
gender and age were significant predictors of employment outcome, with
women being less likely to be employed.
The next section summarizes findings on predictors of employment
specifically for the blind and VI population.
Blindness, Employment, and the Vocational Rehabilitation System
Warren-Peace (2009) analyzed outcomes and predictors of employment and
the differences between clients who were legally blind and clients
with other disabilities. With this framework, the RSA-911 data for
Fiscal Year 2007 was used. Results showed that approximately 34% of
consumers with legal blindness were closed competitively, while 29.5%
of individuals in this same group were closed in non-competitive
employment (i.e., homemaker and unpaid family worker). This is in
sharp contrast to other disability groups, where non-competitive
employment was only 1.5%. Of the total of noncompetitive closures,
clients who were legally blind represented 43.6%. This suggested that
out of the 19 disability types included in this study, just the
legally blind group accounted for a significant amount of the total of
noncompetitive closures in FY 2007.
According to the literature, there are several factors that predict
employment for the blind and VI. Among them, educational level, age,
training in blindness skills, and visual status remain consistent
across the research studies. Leonard, D'Allura, and Horowitz (1999)
found that both achieving a higher educational level and attending an
integrated school setting for most of one’s schooling was associated
with being employed. In addition, the use of printed material as a
primary reading medium, employment related skills (computer, typing,
and use of public transportation), psychosocial variables (overall
satisfaction with social contact and receipt of encouragement from
family and friends), vision rehabilitation service, and technology
training were associated with being employed. In relation to those
factors that predicted employment in higher level positions, they
identified higher level of education, technology training, orientation
and mobility (O&M) training, and fewer hours of rehabilitation
teaching.
In addition to the receipt of education services that resulted in a
certificate or degree, Capella-McDonnall (2005) concluded that having
worked since the onset of the disability, the reason for applying to
rehabilitation for services, and a high-quality relationship between
the client and rehabilitation counselor were the greatest predictors
of an employment outcome. In contrast, McDonnall and Crudden (2009)
concluded that an involvement with the VR counselor was not associated
with employment. In this later study, the results showed that work
experience, academic competence, self-determination, use of assistive
technology, and locus of control were all significant predictors of
employment in transition-age youth with blindness. Cavenaugh, Giesen,
and Steinman (2006) also found that the education level reached and
the age at the time of application, followed by the presence of a
secondary disability, and race/ethnicity were strong predictors of
employment.
Regarding visual status, Leonard et al (1999) found that this factor
had an important impact on employment outcomes, since those
individuals who were blind were more likely to be employed in higher
level positions than those who were partially sighted. A study by
Darensbourg (2013) also revealed that the severity of vision loss was
a statistically significant predictor of competitive employment
outcomes, however, in this study those consumers with lesser vision
loss where more likely to be competitively employed. On the other
hand, the study of Cavenaugh et al (2006) showed that the severity of
the disability was the strongest predictor of acceptance for VR
services.
The results of the study conducted by Warren-Peace (2009) revealed
that the likelihood of obtaining competitive employment after
receiving services from VR was greater for those consumers who were
legally blind without a secondary disability; were male; African
American, Hispanic, or Multiple race/ethnicity; had a personal income
as a primary source of support at application; and attained a special
education certificate or college degree. As well as visual status,
Darensbourg (2013) found that the variables that were the most
statistically significant predictors of competitive employment
outcomes for individuals with blindness or visually impairment were
weekly earnings at application, source of referral (self-referral),
gender (male), and not receiving Medicaid.
Besides predicting competitive employment, some of the factors
mentioned so far also predicted higher earnings. For consumers with
visual impairments who were competitively employed through the
state-federal VR system during Fiscal Year 1997, Capella (2001)
concluded that age, educational level, and case expenditures were some
of the factors accounting for differences in earnings. Of these three,
age was the most significant predictor; clients with visual
impairments that were older tended to receive lower earnings.
Education also had impact on earnings, since the higher the level of
education, the higher the earnings. Finally, some of the variance in
earnings was explained by case expenditures, whereby the greater
amount of money that was spent on a case, the higher the earnings at
closure was for consumers.
An additional factor that seemed to have a significant impact on
employment outcomes and earnings for individuals who were blind and VI
was the type of agency (separated or combined/general) that served
these clients. Cavenaugh, Giesen, and Pierce (2000) concluded that the
mean earnings at closure of legally blind consumers were significantly
higher in separate agencies than in combined agencies. In addition,
Warren-Peace (2009) found that the type of agency seemed to be a
relevant predictor of competitive employment outcomes. Those consumers
who received services from a separate agency for the blind had more
chances to be closed in an integrated work setting. Capella (2001),
however, found that the type of agency that served these clients was
not a significant factor impacting on earnings.
>From a different perspective, Golub (2006) studied the factors that
contributed to successful work experiences for employees from the
perspective of their employers. This study revealed that, according to
the employers, important factors included employee being comfortable
with his/her disability, being an ambassador for blindness by
eliminating awkwardness in relationships, and insisting on being held
to the same standard as his/her coworkers. In addition, this study
found that the key to success for employees was skills of blindness.
He/she should possess updated O&M, Braille and assistive technology
skills, and a variety of strategies to cope in case a system fails.
Furthermore, during interviews candidates should demonstrate their
competence and have specific ideas for how to manage the details of
the work and transportation challenges.
The literature also accounts for studies that have analyzed those
factors that are considered barriers for employment. Crudden and
McBroom (1999) for example, found that attitudes of employers and the
general public, transportation problems, and a lack of access to
print, adaptive equipment, and accommodations were the most relevant.
Visual status also seemed to play a role when analyzing barriers to
employment since individuals who were partially sighted had more
issues with transportation than those who were totally blind. Those
who were blind as opposed to VI, however, had more problems with the
skills or attitudes of rehabilitation counselors or placement staff.
When asked about the most important thing the rehabilitation counselor
did to help the participants to find employment, they mentioned help
in locating jobs, arranging interviews, and providing job references;
provision of education and training or equipment; and provision of
counseling and emotional support. However, of the total sample, only
39% of the participants believed that VR services helped them to
obtain their jobs. The rest of them believed that rehabilitation
services helped them to improve their performances, that the services
made them more competitive with those nondisabled workers, and that
the services helped them to maintain their jobs.
Finally, Bell (2010) offers one of the most current analyses on the
competitive employment rates for VR consumers who were legally blind.
Results from fiscal year 1997 to 2007 (obtained by using the RSA-911
data system) showed an average employment rate of 31.79%, which was
significantly higher than the 25.1% reported by Cavenaugh (1999) based
on data from FY 1995. In fact, the Competitive Consumer Rates have
shown a steady climb from 27% in 1997 up to a high of 37% in 2007. In
addition, earnings of consumers had also increased. Some of the
factors that seemed to impact employment outcomes were gender, race,
education, and veteran status. Results demonstrated that men earned
$0.63 more an hour than women in 1997, and this increased by 2007 to a
$0.86 difference on average. In addition, while the average spread
between earnings was about $6.00 in 1997, the variability in earnings
had increased to nearly $12 for men but only $8 for women. On the
other hand, Native Americans had less employment in 1997 than the
other racial groups, and this group remained substantially behind by
2007. Asian/Pacific Islanders earned the highest average wages and
Black/African Americans earned the lowest average hourly rates. Those
with a master’s degree or higher had almost a 40% greater chance of
being employed and had $4.00 an hour more in earnings than did
individuals with less than a high school degree. In addition, American
veterans were underrepresented in the RSA-911 data system, and where
they were identified the rates of employment were 19%.
White cane for mobility. When analyzing the impact of using a cane and
having received O&M training on employment outcomes, this factor
appears to be important when obtaining a job in higher level positions
(Leonard et al 1999). In addition, from the perspective of employers,
having O&M skills was a factor that contributed to successful work
experiences for employees (Golub, 2006). In his literature review,
Miller (2002) addresses the important role that both O&M instructors
and rehabilitation teachers have as employment resources. They not
only provide the training that leads to employment but since they
spend more time with the consumers than the counselor in a
community-based setting, they have the chance to explore a consumer’s
vocational interests and complement the rehabilitation counselor’s
job.
As it is well known in the field of O&M, there are two main
philosophical approaches that outline two different training methods:
the conventional approach and the alternative approach or Structured
Discovery Cane Travel (SDCT) (Omvig, 2005). SDCT instructional service
offers to individuals who are blind or VI the opportunity to learn
independence and build self-confidence in a meaningful and permanent
approach. SDCT is rooted on non-visual techniques, problem- solving
skills, and confidence-building learning experiences (National
Blindness Professional Certification Board, 2012). It is based on
experiential learning and it remains neutral regarding the
instructor’s perceptual experience, transferring the focus on the
instructor’s vision to the cognitive processes that are involved in an
orientation and mobility lesson. The success of cane travel depends
upon the way in which the student is able to cognitively process the
information (Mettler, 2008). SDCT also applies principles of the
Socratic questioning, (i.e., the asking of strategic questions to
guide the learner in solving the problem autonomously), and strongly
relies on the role modeling of non-visual techniques, which encourages
the discrediting of public misconceptions about blindness (National
Blindness Professional Certification Board, 2012).
The literature is not extensive about the effectiveness of the
different types of O&M training that those individuals who are blind
or VI receive and their impact on employment outcomes. However, in his
study, Aditya (2004) made an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of
the SDCT approach. The author hypothesized that because of the
philosophical and methodological differences between the conventional
and alternative approaches related to functional independence,
individuals trained in the alternative approach will score higher on a
measure of functional independence than those trained in the
conventional approach. In this survey the data about the method of
training was not directly obtained, however, it was replaced by
examining the variable of cane size, given that the “NFB” canes are
employed almost exclusively in the alternative approach, while the
shorter, folding, aluminum or graphite canes are predominately
utilized in conventional programs. Therefore, the item of cane size
was recoded into a dichotomous variable to reflect the two training
approaches. The descriptive statistics revealed that the differences
were in the expected direction. The within-group variances between
those who were trained in the alternative approach and those who were
trained in the conventional approach were noticeably different. Aditya
(2004) reported that individuals who were trained with a long, white
cane had significantly higher ability and activity in matters of
independent living.
Braille. One of the most cited studies in the field conducted by Ryles
(1996) revealed that reading Braille was one main skill that
predicted, for congenitally legally blind adults, higher employment
rates and higher education levels than reading print as original
medium. The main results showed that those individuals that utilized
Braille as their primary reading medium had a significantly lower
unemployment rate (44%) that those who utilize print as the original
reading medium. The author affirmed that even though reading Braille
as a primary medium did not increase an individual’s opportunities for
employment, those who learned Braille when they were children and used
Braille extensively as their primary reading medium, were employed at
a higher rate. However, those who learned Braille after using print
did not have a higher employment rate than those who never read
Braille. According to Golub (2006), employers believed that possessing
updated Braille skills represented an important factor that
contributed to successful work experiences for their employees.
Papadopoulos and Koutsoklenis (2009) conducted a study with higher
education Greek students and graduates who were VI in order to explore
the use of different reading media. They found out that the most
significant predictors of the frequency of use of Braille were visual
status, age at the loss of sight, and training in Braille.
Specifically, the frequency of use of Braille declined with the
increase in the age at which sight was lost, but increased with
training in Braille. The authors concluded that a well-established
tendency to use technology could lead to a further decline in the
frequency of Braille use in Greece. For this reason they stated that
efforts should be made to enhance the use of Braille, and since in
Greece the frequency of Braille use decreases with the increase in age
at time of loss, they recommended the development of intensive Braille
courses for people who become visually impaired at a later age.
Little agreement exists over the type, nature, intensity, structure,
and model of training that is most effective (Ryles, 2008). Some
training models report that the learning of Braille is a requirement
for all individuals who enter the program (Mayo, Allen, & Deden, 2008)
while others report that only 20% of individuals attending training
elect to learn Braille (Ponchillia & Durant, 1996). It is commonly
reported that 85% of adults who read Braille are employed (Ryles,
1996; Spungin, 1990), yet disagreement still rages over what
constitutes best practice for the teaching of Braille.
Consumer and civic involvement. Existing literature has demonstrated
the key role that family support plays in sustaining effective
outcomes (Bennetts, 2003; Whelley, Radtke, R., Burgstahler, S., &
Christ, T., 2003). The role of advisors, peers, and other peer-to-peer
interactions has also been cited as important in the rehabilitation
process (Hall & McGregor, 2000; Whelley, et al., 2003). Both formal as
well as informal models of mentoring have been demonstrated as
effective mediators in education, employment, and career decision
making (Bell, 2012; Hall & McGregor, 2000; Marks & Feeley, 1995).
Community and civic participation, such as religious affiliation,
social clubs, and civic organizations, further help to support
interest and engagement in employment (Nagle, 2001; Vaughn & Omvig,
2005). Finally, specifically for members of the target population,
self-reports and anecdotal evidence suggest that membership in a
consumer organization is an essential element in the rehabilitation
process (Beck-Winchatz & Riccobono, 2008; Omvig, 2005; Phelps, 2005).
However, the stories of many individuals who are blind tell of
families who were over protective (Omvig, 2002), of communities that
put up restrictions (Ferguson, 2001), and of support groups that
promoted unemployment and dependence (Vaughn & Omvig, 2005). What
research needs to accomplish is to tease out how these factors serve
as facilitators rather than deterrents so that training and education
can impact greater growth and evolution.
Crudden and McBroom (1999) conducted a study that demonstrated that
among the reasons participants thought they were successful in
overcoming barriers to employment was the importance of developing
networking and mentoring opportunities. Role models appeared to be a
relevant variable in maintaining motivation. They serve as examples to
others and provide helpful insight on how to address some of the
employment barriers. According to participants in this study,
rehabilitation providers usually do not encourage mentoring
opportunities or contact with role models who are visually impaired.
The authors stated that referrals to consumer organizations could
assist those who seek employment in generating support systems.
Even though there is a lack of empirical studies about the impact of a
consumer affiliation on employment outcomes, there are sufficient
testimonies of blind individuals who express the opinion that their
involvement in a consumer organization changed their lives completely.
Omvig (2002) stated the NFB has been a key in his life and the lives
of many blind individuals. He emphasizes the importance that competent
and successful blind people who are part of this organization have as
positive role models. These role models are the living proof that with
proper training and opportunity, blind people can live normal,
successful, and meaningful lives. And this is what they pass along to
the new generations.
Purpose of the study. The purpose of the current study was to capture
a snapshot of the employment status of individuals who are legally
blind and/or VI across the United States. Furthermore, this study
sought to examine demographic factors, education, civic involvement,
and rehabilitation experiences of this population in order to
determine whether any state factors (i.e., those which are changeable
through education or training) could be identified as contributing to
the employment outcomes of these individuals.
Research Questions. The following research questions served as the
guiding principles for this study.
Q1: What is the employment rate for adults who are blind/VI in a
national sample, and how does this rate compare to existing research
findings on the subject?
Q2: Are specific demographic factors (i.e., age, gender, racial
identity, visual status) associated with greater or lesser rates of
employment and wages for this population?
Q3: Can social and civic factors (i.e., civic involvement, affiliation
with consumer organizations) be identified that are associated with
higher rates of employment and wages for this population?
Q4: Can education and rehabilitation-related factors (i.e., college,
adjustment training, etc.) be identified that are associated with
increased rates of employment and wages for this population?
Method
Participants
The participants for this survey were drawn from legally blind and VI
adults of working age (i.e., 18-70 years old) from across the United
States. Complete data were obtained from 1,056 individuals who were an
average age of 46.47 years (SD=13.81, Range=18-87). These individuals
were representative of 595 females (56.34%) and 461 males (43.66%),
who were 90 African Americans (8.52%), 35 Asian Americans (3.31%), 56
Hispanics/Latinos (including Puerto Ricans) (5.30%), eight Native
Americans/Alaska Natives (0.76%), four Native Hawaiians/Pacific
Islanders (0.38%), 836 Whites or Caucasians (79.17%), and 27 who
reported being of other or mixed races (2.56%).
Instruments
The instruments that were used for this study included the Adult
Rehabilitation and Employment Survey (ARES), which consisted of 79
variables, covering (a) general demographics including living
situation; (b) VR and adjustment training experiences; (c) civic and
consumer organization affiliation; (d) educational attainment; (e)
employment characteristics; and (f) a request to participate in future
research.
Procedures
All participants first read (or were read to) an informed consent
document that outlined the purpose of the study, characteristics of
requested participants (i.e., blind/VI adults of working age), and a
notice that their participation was completely voluntary. This study
was reviewed and approved by the host university’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB). Interested persons were provided two options for
participation: (1) they could complete the survey online by visiting
the provided URL; or (2) they were invited to contact the office of
the principal investigator and have the survey read to them by a
research assistant over the phone. The survey took approximately ten
minutes to complete. Data were collected between March 15 and August
31, 2011.
Recruitment. The purpose of this survey was to obtain a snapshot of
the cross section of rehabilitation, education, and employment
situation of adults with legal blindness/visual impairment in the
United States. As such, a host of methods were employed to reach
individuals from a cross section of society and socioeconomic status.
The invitation to participate in the survey was distributed on all
available listservs of the two largest consumer organizations of the
blind (i.e., the American Council of the Blind (ACB) and the National
Federation of the Blind (NFB)). The invitation was sent electronically
to every state-operated library for the blind in each regional office
with a request to have it distributed to library patrons. The
invitation was sent electronically to all fifty VR agencies who serve
the blind/VI population, to the National Council of State Agencies for
the Blind, and related rehabilitation membership organizations. The
request for participation was sent to more than 80 rehabilitation and
adjustment training facilities electronically, and more than 2,000
requests were also sent in print/Braille to those training centers
that were willing to distribute the announcement. In addition, 3,000
print/Braille flyers were distributed to the participants of the 2011
annual convention of the NFB; 1,200 were distributed to the
participants of the 2011 annual convention of the ACB; and 200 were
distributed to the participants of the Blinded Veterans of America
Conference. Requests were sent on more than ten periodic newsletters
and periodical publications, were posted on Facebook and other social
media outlets, and were passed on by word of mouth.
Results
Demographics
Beyond age, gender, and racial group identity, the following data were
captured to provide an understanding of the make up of the sample
population that comprised this study. The respondents were
representative of all 50 states, with the fewest respondents being
from North Dakota (n = 2) and the largest representation coming from
Texas (n = 75). They self-reported being 702 individuals who are blind
(66.48%) and 354 reported being visually impaired (33.52%) (See Table
1).
Table 1 – Demographics
Age
n
Mean
SD
1056
46.47
13.81
Range
18-87
Gender
Frequency
Percent
Female
595
56.34
Male
461
43.66
Total
1056
100
Race/Ethnicity
Frequency
Percent
African American, Black
90
8.52
Asian American, Asian
35
3.31
Hispanic, Latino (including Puerto Rican)
56
5.3
Native American, Alaska Native
8
0.76
Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander
4
0.38
Other
27
2.56
White or Caucasian
836
79.17
Total
1056
100
Vision Status
Frequency
Percent
Blind
702
66.48
Visually Impaired
354
33.52
Total
1056
100
Data were collected on additional demographics, such as marital
status, living situation, and the community of residence. The majority
of participants (51%) reported that they live in their own home that
they are purchasing, with the smallest proportion (2%) who reported
living in a dormitory or similar institution. The largest segment of
this population are currently married (45%), while just under two
percent report being widowed. By far, the majority of this sample
(57%) report that they do not have any children, while the next
largest grouping (17%) report having two children. While others report
having one, three, four or five children, less than two percent (1.5%)
report having six or more children. When looking at the size of the
community in which individuals reside, the majority (23%) lived in
small communities of less than 25,000 residence, with the second
largest concentration (22%) living in small communities of between
25,000 and 75,000. The third largest grouping of individuals resided
in large cities with populations above one million, and the remainder
fell into mid-size communities (See Table 2).
Table 2 – Family and Community
Living Situation Frequency
percent
Live alone and/or with others in house/condo that I own or am
purchasing
541
51.23
Live alone and/or with others in apartment or rental property
that I pay for
300
28.41
Live at home with parents or in someone else’s home
130
12.31
Live in dormitory or other institution
25
2.37
Share an apartment or rental property with room mates
60
5.68
Total
1056
100
Marital Status
Frequency
Percent
Divorced
107
10.13
Married
475
44.98
Separated
22
2.08
Single
353
33.43
Widow or widower
18
1.7
With significant other person
81
7.67
Total
1056
99.99
Raising Children
Frequency
Percent
No, I have no children
605
57.29
1 child
133
12.59
2 children
176
16.67
3 children
80
7.58
4 children
35
3.31
5 children
11
1.04
6 or more children
16
1.52
Total
1056
100
Population of Your Community
Frequency
Percent
1-25,000 People
245
23.2
25,001—75,000 People
240
22.73
75,001—150,000 People
121
11.46
150,001—250,000 People
104
9.85
250,001—500,000 People
89
8.43
500,001—1,000,000 People
121
11.46
1,000,001—2,000,001—larger
136
12.88
Total
1056
100.01
Vocational Rehabilitation and Education
The next set of questions was designed to gain information related to
VR, and in particular, the attainment of adjustment to vision loss
training. Individuals were asked whether they had an active case with
their state’s VR agency. Forty-two individuals (3.98%) stated that
they have never had a VR case, while 26 were unsure or did not know
(2.46%). Of the remaining 94%, 577 individuals (54.64%) reported
having once had a VR case, but that it is closed now, while 411
individuals (38.92%) reported they still maintain an open VR case.
When asked whether or not the individual ever received adjustment to
blindness training (i.e., mobility with a white cane, Braille, or
daily living skills), 191 individuals (18.09%) reported that they have
never received any sort of formal skill training based on visual
impairment. Another 501 individuals (47.44%) reported having completed
(or graduated) from either a residential or day-training program.
Another 119 individuals (11.26%) stated that they attended a
residential or day program, but that they did not complete their
training program. Finally, 252 individuals (23.86%) reported that they
attended multiple forms of training, and/or that they received
training in their home or school.
While there are many forms of rehabilitation and adjustment training,
this study focused only on cane and Braille. For those who did receive
some sort of adjustment training, they were asked about their
training/use of a white cane for mobility. There were 777 individuals
who reported having been taught to use a cane. These individuals were
at an average of 23.67 years of age (SD = 15.62, Range = 2—78) when
they were first taught. Of the total sample, 152 stated “No, the use
of a cane was not taught” (14.39%). The remaining individuals stated,
“I learned a little about cane use” (n = 76, 7.20%); “I was taught
using a white cane that measured between my sternum and chin” (n =
513, 48.58%); and “I was taught with a long cane that measured between
my chin and nose” (n = 315, 29.83%). When respondents were asked
whether they currently use a white cane for mobility, 247 stated that
they did not use a cane for mobility (23.39%). Of the remaining 544
individuals, (51.52%) stated that they use a cane all of the time, and
265 individuals (25.09%) reported using a cane some of the time. When
asked about the size and structure of the cane that is preferred for
current use, 334 individuals (39.57%) said, “A folding cane, that is
lower than my chin in height;” 171 individuals (20.26%) said, “A
folding or telescoping cane that is above my chin in height;” 249
individuals (29.50%) said, “A rigid cane that is above my chin in
height;” 40 individuals (4.74%) said, “A rigid cane, that is lower
than my chin in height;” and 50 individuals (5.92%) stated that they
used another type of cane/mobility device.
Similarly, participants were asked about their training/use of
Braille. There were 674 individuals who reported being taught Braille
at an average of 18.32 years of age (SD = 15.54, Range = 3—78). Of the
entire sample, 765 stated that they were taught Braille (72.44%),
while 291 reported that they had not been taught Braille (27.56%).
When these participants were asked whether or not they currently read
Braille on a daily or weekly basis, 613 stated that they currently
read Braille (58.05%), and 443 stated that they do not currently read
Braille (41.95%).
With respect to participant education, respondents were asked about
their educational standing before they received any rehabilitation
training, and then again after the receipt of any vocational training.
Table 3 provides a side by side comparison of the number and
percentage of individuals by educational level before and after
rehabilitation training. As can be seen from the table, a majority of
individuals significantly increased their educational attainment, from
pre to post training. When respondents were asked whether they
attributed their rehabilitation training to their advances in
education, 141 individuals (13.45%) stated that they did not attend
rehabilitation and adjustment training. Of the remaining, 201
individuals (19.03%) stated that their rehabilitation did not help
them to increase their educational attainment, while another 282
individuals (26.70%) were not sure. This meant that 432 individuals
(40.1%) of respondents felt that their rehabilitation training was
either somewhat helpful, or was instrumental in their ability to
increase in their educational attainment.
Table 3 -- Education
Education
Before VR Frequency
Percent
Education
After VR
Frequency
Percent
Less than High School
194
18.37
Less than High School
13
1.23
High School diploma/GED
349
33.05
High School diploma/GED
49
4.64
Some college, but no degree
148
14.02
Some college, but no degree
141
13.35
Associates Degree/AA
50
4.73
Associates Degree/AA
76
7.2
Vocational or Trade school
15
1.42
Vocational or Trade school
53
5.02
Bachelor’s/undergraduate degree
147
13.92
Bachelor’s/undergraduate degree
246
23.3
Master’s/Graduate Degree
72
6.82
Master’s/Graduate Degree
238
22.54
Law Degree
12
1.14
Law Degree
21
1.99
Doctorate degree/post graduate training
17
1.61
Doctorate degree/post graduate training
46
4.36
Not sure or
Not applicable
52
4.92
Not sure or
Not applicable
173
16.38
Pre Training
1056
100
Post Training
1056
100.01
Consumer and Civic Involvement
Individuals were asked whether they participated in any consumer
organizations of the blind. There were 226 individuals (21.40%) who
affiliated with the (ACB); 49 individuals (4.64%) who affiliated with
both the ACB and NFB; 457 individuals (43.28%) who associated with the
NFB; and 324 individuals (30.68%) who are not members of any consumer
organization. In attempting to determine the level or extent of
consumer organizational affiliation, 330 individuals (31.25%)
reiterated that they do not participate in consumer organizations; 397
individuals (37.59%) stated that they are members, but hold no
leadership positions; 253 individuals (23.96%) reported holding local
or state leadership positions; 12 individuals (1.14%) claimed national
leadership positions; and 64 individuals (6.06%) stated that they hold
several positions at the local, state, and/or national level.
Information was also sought with respect to the frequency with which
participants participated in other community and/or civic activities
in their local communities. All individuals participated in at least
one extracurricular event, and a large number participated in a number
of different activities. Of the sample, 541 individuals (51.23%)
stated that they participate in their local church, synagogue, or
place of worship. As many as 185 individuals (17.51%) reported holding
leadership positions within their church. One-hundred ninety-four
individuals (18.37%) participate in music or theatre; 111 individuals
(10.51%) compete on local sports or athletic teams; 114 individuals
(10.79%) are members of Kiwanis, Rotary, or other business groups; and
200 individuals (18.93%) participate in political and/or other civic
groups.
Employment
One of the major factors under consideration in this study was the
employment situation of the population of adults who are blind/VI, and
specifically, what role, if any, VR plays in changing this situation.
As can be seen from Table 4, 512 individuals (48.48%) were unemployed
prior to receiving VR services, while only 192 individuals (18.18%)
were employed full time. Conversely, after individuals received VR
services, the majority of persons, 393 (37.22%), were employed
full-time, compared to 307 individuals (29.07%) who remained
unemployed, in addition to a 5.3% increase in the number of
individuals who were working part-time. Of the 535 individuals who
were working either full- or part-time at the completion of this
survey, 406 individuals provided data on their annual salaries. For
these individuals, the average annual salary was $40,134.12 (SD =
$27,129.74, Range = $2,401.92--$180,000), with a median annual salary
of $35,000.
Table 4 – Employment Status
Before VR Frequency
Percentage
After VR
Frequency
Percentage
Full-time employed
192
18.18
Full-Time
393
37.22
Part-time employed
86
8.14
Part-Time
142
13.45
Full-time college or vocational student
119
11.27
Full-Time College
72
6.82
Volunteer part- or full-time
33
3.13
Vol. F-P
45
4.26
Full-time Homemaker
26
2.46
Homemaker
21
1.99
Retired from previous employment
35
3.31
Retired
76
7.2
Unemployed
512
48.48
Unemployed
307
29.07
N/A, I never had a VR case before
53
5.02
Total
1056
99.99
*
1056
100.01
Information was also collected with respect to the availability of
fringe benefits through the place of employment. The participants
reported that 361 individuals (66.85%) had the availability of medical
insurance through their place of work. In addition, 338 individuals
(62.59%) reported having dental insurance available to them, and 332
individuals (61.48%) reported having retirement benefits/planning
available to them through their work.
Factors that Impact on Employment
The preceding data are helpful in drawing a picture of the general
demographic, rehabilitation, educational, and employment
characteristics of the working-age population of individuals who are
blind. With only 37% of the population reporting full-time employment,
it is important to examine the demographic, rehabilitation, and
educational characteristics of this sample to determine the factors
that seem to make an impact on the attainment of employment. The
demographic and descriptive data that have been presented so far are
representative of the entire sample. During the analysis of the VR
data, the first question identified that 475 individuals (45.36%) of
the sample either still have an open VR case, or else they did not
know what their VR status was. Consequently, 577 individuals (54.64%)
of the sample reported that they did receive VR services, but that
their VR case has now been closed. It is this portion of the sample
whose data should be most descriptive of the employment situation of
individuals post-rehabilitation, and therefore, the remaining analysis
will be confined to the 577 individuals who have already received VR
services and who should most likely be available for participation in
the workforce.
Demographic factors. The participant’s age, gender, racial/ethnic
classification, and visual impairment characteristics were examined to
determine to what effect each has on the attainment of employment. The
data demonstrated that there was no correlation between the age of the
consumer and the likelihood of being competitively employed; nor was
there a relationship between age and the annual earnings of
participants.
Participants were asked to classify themselves as being either blind
or VI. This information was sought based on a perception that those
with lesser vision may be less employable and consequently at a
greater risk for unemployment. The data demonstrated no significant
difference based on this classification (F(1, 576) = 1.55, p = .21,
RS.0). Those who described themselves as “blind” were employed at a
rate of 54%, while those who classified themselves as “visually
impaired” were employed at a rate of 49%. While a difference does
exist based on annual earnings for these two groups, the results were
non-significant (F(1, 294) = 3.28, p = .07, RS = .01).; with blind
individuals earning $44,000 on average and visually impaired earning
$37,623. With respect to gender, the data demonstrated no significant
differences between men and women on the percentage of those who were
employed (54% and 51% respectively); however, there was a significant
difference in the annual earnings based on gender (F(1, 294) = 10.45,
p < .01, RS = .03), with men earning an average of $47,424 and females
earning $37,483 annually. Next, the participant’s self-reported
racial/ethnic background was examined, and no significant differences
were found in either the percentage of employment or annual earnings.
Does participation in a national consumer organization of the blind/VI
help such individuals with their employment prospects? Data
demonstrated that a significant difference did exist (F(2, 576) =
5.99, p < .01, RS = .02), with those individuals who participate in
the ACB being employed at a rate of 42%, those who participate in the
NFB being employed at a rate of 59%, and those who reported no
participation in a consumer organization for the blind being employed
at a rate of 49%. Similarly, a significant difference exists based on
annual income (F(2, 294) = 3.80, p = .02, RS = .02), with ACB members
earning an average annual wage of $37,100; NFB members earning
$46,200; and those who do not affiliate with either organization
earning $38,200.
Training factors. Beyond those characteristics of participants that
are trait factors (i.e., demographics), it was next important to
evaluate the impact of the state factors that were examined (i.e.,
education and rehabilitation training). Previous studies (Bell, 2010)
demonstrated that the attainment of college education is a leading
factor in increasing employment and so it was examined for its impact
in this study. Although myriad forms of rehabilitation training exist,
this study focused primarily on the provision of adjustment skills
training through comprehensive residential and day training programs.
Specific data were also obtained with respect to the use of the white
cane and Braille, as these are the most readily identifiable tools
used by individuals who are blind or VI.
The data demonstrate that a significant difference exists between the
employment status of participants based on the level of education that
had been attained (F(4, 576 = 13.09, p < .01, RS = .08). Further
analysis showed that those who had a high school diploma or less, or
who attended only some college were employed at a rate of 36%; those
who had earned a baccalaureate degree were employed at a rate of 59%;
those having earned a master’s degree were employed at a rate of 65%;
and those with a law or doctoral degree were employed at a rate of
80%. Similarly, significant differences exist with respect to the
annual earnings of these individuals (F(4, 296) = 12.23, p < .01, RS =
.14). These differences were represented by those holding a high
school diploma or less earning an average annual salary of $31,500;
those holding a baccalaureate degree earning $42,300; those holding a
master’s degree earning $48,200; and those with a law or doctoral
degree earning $66,900 annually.
When participants were asked whether they had completed training at
any sort of day-time or residential program, the sample was split
almost in half between those who had, and who had not completed
training. The data demonstrated that the mere fact of receiving
training versus not receiving training had no impact on employment
outcomes (F(1, 576) = 0.24, p =.62, RS = 0). Upon further analysis, a
more interesting trend was discovered. The data demonstrated a
significant difference based on the method or type of training that
was received (F(2, 576) = 3.78, p = .02, RS = .01). The data
demonstrated that those individuals who completed training at a
Structured Discovery-based training center were employed at a rate of
60%; those who completed training at a traditional or conventional
training facility were employed at a rate of 47%; and those who either
received training at home, or who received no formal skills training
were employed at a rate of 56%. When the annualized salary of these
individuals was examined, the data again showed significant
differences (F(2, 294) = 3.98, p = .01, RS = .02). The same trend
continued, with those who received their rehabilitation at a
Structured Discovery-based program earning an average of $49,302;
those who received their training at conventional centers earned an
average of $38,170; and those who were trained at home or had no
formal training earned an average of $42,753.
Another factor that was examined in this study was recidivism (i.e.,
the returning for training multiple times). As has been noted in the
literature, there is concern that the need for constant retraining—for
example, when more vision diminishes--has a negative impact on
employment. It is for this reason that Structured Discovery-based
training centers endeavor to provide comprehensive training during one
concentrated period of time. The data do in fact support the notion
that those who return for training multiple times have significantly
less employment than those who only obtain training a single time
(F(3, 384) = 2.80, p = .04, RS = .02), with those who obtained
training one time being employed at a rate of 57% and those receiving
training 4 or more times being employed at a rate of 35%. The same
trend exists with respect to salary (F(3, 193) = 2.81, p = .04, RS =
.04), with those who attended training one time earning $46,766, and
those obtaining training four or more times earning $33,275.
More specifically, this research was interested in several specific
training variables and their impact on employment. The data
demonstrated that 87% of participants have been taught to use a long
white cane for mobility; however, only 54% of respondents report
currently using a white cane for daily mobility. When these data were
evaluated for their impact on employment, the data demonstrated that
individuals who currently use a white cane for mobility are employed
at a significantly higher rate than those who do not (F(1, 576) =
3.73, p = .05, RS = .006), with cane users being employed at a rate of
57% and those who do not use a cane being employed at a rate of 49%.
The data were similarly significant with respect to the annual income
of cane users (F(1, 294) = 4.77, p = .02, RS = .01), with cane users
earning an average of $45,329, and non-cane users earning an average
of $38,478. Stemming from the findings of Aditya (2004), the data were
next analyzed to see if the type of cane used was related to
employment outcomes. The data demonstrated a significant difference
(F(2, 465) = 9.52, p < .01, RS = .03), with those who use a rigid cane
that comes above the chin in height being employed at a rate of 66%,
those who use a folding or rigid cane that is below the chin in height
being employed at a rate of 47%, and those who either use an “other”
device or no cane at all being employed at a rate of 34%. Similarly,
the data demonstrated a significant difference in the annual earnings
(F(2, 241) = 6.92, p < .01, RS = .05), with longer white cane users
earning approximately $50,000, short/folding cane users earning
$37,000, and other/no cane earning $49,000.
The same data were next analyzed to determine whether the use of
Braille had an impact on the employment status of this population.
Similar to cane use, 75% of the participants were taught Braille at
some time during their education or rehabilitation, but only 63%
reported still using Braille on a daily basis. Are Braille readers
employed at a higher rate than VI individuals who do not read Braille?
The data demonstrate that the answer to this question is yes (F(1,
576) = 11.32, p < .01, RS = .02), with Braille readers being employed
at a rate of 58% and those who do not read Braille being employed at a
rate of 44%. With respect to annualized salary, the data are even more
significant (F(1, 294) = 11.40, p < .01, RS = .03), with Braille
readers earning an average of $45,947, and non-Braille readers earning
an average of $34,826. With more than an $11,000 difference in
annualized salary, there appears to be a substantial impact that
Braille has on employment and salary.
Taken individually, each of these factors demonstrates a significant
impact (or association) with greater or lesser rates of employment. By
combining the most salient factors together, the results show even
more substantial differences in employment outcomes. Individuals who
complete training at a Structured Discovery type of training center,
continue to read Braille on a daily or weekly basis, use a white cane
for mobility, and affiliate with the NFB are employed at a rate of
75%, earning an annualized salary of $53,600. Conversely, those
individuals who received training at a conventional program or had no
formal training, who affiliated with the ACB or no consumer
organization, and who do not use a white cane or Braille are employed
at a rate of 44%, earning $36,000 annually.
Discussion
The rates of employment for individuals who are legally blind/VI in
the United States have been low for decades. The purpose of this study
was to describe the current employment status of these individuals and
to analyze its consistency with federal reports and previous research.
In addition, the study sought to examine demographic factors,
education, civic involvement, and rehabilitation experiences of this
population in order to determine whether some of them could be
identified as contributing to the employment outcomes.
The contributions of this study are quite revealing and reliable since
this work represents the largest field-based study in the field of
rehabilitation for blind and VI individuals, with a national sample of
1,056 participants. Although this study highlighted a great deal of
demographic, education, and rehabilitation factors that impact on
employment, the following were found to be the most salient:
a.. The data show that 37% of working-age adults who are blind/VI
are employed full-time earning a median salary of $35,000—a strikingly
similar finding to the federal rehabilitation and labor findings for
this population. This finding is also similar to those of existing
research (Bell, 2010; Warren-Peace, 2009), putting in evidence that
there has not been a change in the employment rate in the last years.
b.. Of these 37% employed individuals , approximately 67% have
access to medical insurance through their work, 63% have access to
dental insurance, and 61% have the availability of retirement
planning.
c.. Although men and women who are blind/VI are employed at roughly
equivalent rates, a gender gap still exists with men earning on
average $10,000 more annually than women. These findings are
consistent with those of previous research (Bell, 2010; Darensbourg,
2013; Randolph, 2004; Warren-Peace, 2009).
d.. No significant difference was identified within the rates of
employment or earnings based on other demographic characteristics,
such as age, race/ethnicity, or visual impairment classification.
e.. Those individuals who affiliate with the NFB in this study were
employed at a rate of 59%, earning $46,200; whereas, those who
affiliate with the ACB were employed at a rate of 42%, earning
$37,000. Those who chose not to affiliate with either organization
tended to fare better than ACB members, but less well than NFB
members.
f.. As has been demonstrated in previous research, educational
attainment was a significant factor in the employment of this
population, with those having graduate-level education being employed
at more than twice the rate of those with only a high school diploma,
and a more than $35,000 difference in annualized earnings.
g.. Obtaining comprehensive adjustment training was also positively
related to employment outcomes, with those being trained at Structured
Discovery-based programs being employed at a rate of 60%, earning
$49,300 in comparison to those trained at conventionally-based
programs, who were employed at a rate of 47%, earning $38,100. These
results confirm those of Aditya (2004).
h.. Recidivism (i.e., the returning for retraining multiple times),
was found to be negatively related to employment, with those who
receive training four or more times being employed at a rate of 35% in
comparison to those who seek training only once being employed at 57%,
and those same individuals earning $13,000 less than those who were
trained a single time.
i.. The findings showed that those who use a white cane for daily
mobility are employed at a significantly higher rate and earn a
significantly greater annualized salary than those who no longer do.
j.. Those who read Braille on a daily or weekly basis are employed
at a significantly higher rate than those who do not, and Braille
readers also earn on average $11,000 more than non-Braille readers.
k.. In combination, the data indicate that individuals who complete
training at a Structured Discovery program, who affiliate with the
NFB, use a cane for daily mobility, and read Braille are employed at a
rate of 75%, earning $53,000 annually.
l.. In contrast, those who were conventionally trained or not
trained, who either affiliate with ACB or no one, and who neither use
a cane or read Braille are employed at only a rate of 44%, earning
only $36,000 annually.
Implications
The employment rate for individuals who are blind or VI remains
extremely low in the United States. The findings of this study may
help consumers and professionals in the field of blindness to pinpoint
and work on those factors that influence the acquisition of
competitive employment and higher earnings in their particular cases.
Education and training seem to be two of the main central factors to
have a significant influence. It is extremely important for consumers
and professionals, especially in the VR field, to acknowledge the
benefits of this type of training. Consumers should become aware of
these data about Structured Discovery training in order to be able to
make an authentic informed choice about their rehabilitation plan. Of
the data obtained through this study, consumers and practitioners
should know that:
a.. Age, gender, racial identity, and degree of visual impairment
need not impede one’s ability to obtain employment.
b.. Education, especially higher education, seems to make a positive
difference in the chances of being employed and the amount of money
that one can earn.
c.. Knowing positive role models who are themselves blind appears to
be important in the pursuit of education, training, and employment.
d.. Using a white cane to assist in daily mobility is probably a good
idea.
e.. Knowing and using Braille for reading on a regular basis makes
good sense.
f.. Obtaining comprehensive training up front seems better than
getting it piecemeal over time in shorter segments.
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Edward C. Bell, Ph.D., CRC, NOMC
REGISTER TO TAKE THE NATIONAL CERTIFICATION IN LITERARY BRAILLE (NCLB) Exam
http://www.nbpcb.org/pages/announcements.php
Director, Professional Development and Research
Institute on Blindness
Louisiana Tech University
210 Woodard Hall
PO Box 3158
Ruston LA 71272
Office: 318.257.4554
Fax: 318.257.2259 (Fax)
Skype: edwardbell2010
ebell at latech.edu
www.latech.edu/instituteonblindness
********************
"I am somehow less interested in the weight and convolutions of
Einstein's brain than in the near certainty that people of equal
talent have lived and died in cotton fields and sweatshops."
-- Stephen Jay Gould
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