[stylist] Part 2- History of long cane and the blind

[Robert Newman]

	Here is Jeff Altman's article which was published in the
"Encyclopedia of Disability 2008." 
 

Headword#857
Jeff Altman
Mar. 08

Long Canes

The use of a cane or a long staff as an adaptive tool for independent travel
by the BLIND has been documented throughout much of history. Traditionally,
the "long cane" is so named because it is much longer than the orthopedic
cane; when held vertically, it often reaches to the middle of the chest, or
to the height between the individual's chin and nose. Long canes are often
referred to as "white canes" but they are not always the same. The latter
refers to any cane that is white in color (sometimes with a red tip) and has
primarily been viewed as a means of identifying blind persons so that they
might receive assistance and additional consideration from the normally
sighted public. This traditional view of the cane's coloring continues to be
held by many members of the public, but among blind Americans the long white
cane increasingly has become a symbol of independence. Changes in long came
technology, usage, and instruction reflect the changing history of blind
people.
	 In the colonial period canes were usually made of wood or bamboo,
although even steel was sometimes used in spite of the disadvantages created
by this material's weight. Often these canes were hand-made by blind persons
themselves, their family members, or by local artisans. These early canes
usually reflected the individual user's needs, preferences, and experiences
interacting with the environment.  
With the industrial revolution in the 1800s, manufactured canes designed to
meet the needs of persons with orthopedic disabilities became more common,
and often blind persons adopted these for their own use. The availability
and abundance of well-made canes promoted this choice, but other motivations
influenced blind people's decisions to use these kinds of canes.  The long
staff, in spite of its many advantages as a travel tool, carried the
symbolic and centuries-old STIGMA associated with blind beggars. Less
conspicuous, orthopedic canes enabled some blind people to "pass" as less
disabled. 
Historically, the manner in which blind persons used the cane varied from
one individual to another, and most blind travelers developed their own cane
techniques, although throughout history blind persons commonly have shared
their knowledge with one another. In the late 1800s, some European schools
began developing formalized training for independent travel by the blind,
which in most cases did not specifically address the effective use of the
cane.  In the United States, such training was commonly presented by a
member of the teaching staff at residential schools for the blind. Usually a
blind Physical Fitness instructor introduced use of the cane and basic
travel techniques to students in the weeks just before graduation.
World War II contributed to the rise of standardized methods for using the
cane as a tool for independent travel as many blinded veterans returned from
the battlefields. Dr. Richard Hoover of the Valley Forge Army Hospital is
credited with first introducing a longer cane specifically designed to meet
the needs of non-visual travel, and to standardize an effective technique
for the use of the long cane. When held vertically, Hoover's cane reached
roughly to the middle of the individual's chest. The "two point touch," or
"two tap," technique he developed involved arcing the cane evenly across the
traveler's body, opposite of the person's footsteps, so that the cane clears
effectively for obstacles ahead, allowing the person time to react.
 These conventional canes have changed little in their design since the
1940s. They have been commonly made of aluminum, although with the
development of lighter weight, more durable materials, fiberglass or carbon
fiber have become more common. Designed for the purpose of independent
non-visual travel, their length is usually determined by factors such as the
individual's height, length of stride, and personal preferences for
successfully interacting with the environment. One exception is the
different types of cane tips.  Early developers and users recognized that
canes wore down over time from the friction created when it contacted the
ground, or  became stuck on surfaces such as concrete. Early cane tips were
only slightly larger in diameter than the cane shaft and either made of
metal or nylon. Beginning in the 1980s, new types of cane tips were
developed to address problems caused by sidewalk cracks and changes in
techniques. 
Other cane styles trace their development to the mid to late 1950s and the
organized blindness movement, specifically from the efforts of  the NATIONAL
FEDERATION OF THE BLIND. These canes emerged from the collective knowledge
of blind persons themselves. These canes tend to be longer and lighter, with
tapered, hollow, semi flexible, fiberglass shafts; they also have metal tips
designed to produce superior auditory and tactile information that aids the
traveler with echolocation and recognizing changes in surfaces.
Since World War II, two significantly different models for instruction in
non-visual independent travel skills have emerged. Clinical settings, most
predominantly associated with Dr. Richard Hoover's pioneering work, defined
one approach. Clinical proponents identified with the MEDICAL MODEL coined
the term "Orientation and Mobility."  This term refers to instruction that
assists the blind person to learn techniques that allow him or her to remain
oriented, while moving safely through the environment. 
Building  from the medical and military training models of the 1940s
Conventional Orientation and Mobility  instructors tend to view their role
similarly to that of an occupational therapist, seeking ways to reduce the
blind person's level of dependency by enhancing the use of their remaining
vision, and introducing non-visual techniques only where necessary. Under
this model, expertise is considered  the intellectual property of the
professional instructors, who are wholly responsible for the safety of their
students, lessons are presented in a set sequence of steps formulated by
experts in the field, and reinforced with students through repetition and
interaction with the instructor. Because of this instructional approach, and
the belief that independent travel for the blind is complex, difficult, and
potentially dangerous, for many years professionals in this model
considered it ineffective and unsafe for blind persons to enter the field.
As a result, the certification process associated with conventional
Orientation and Mobility resisted providing certification to qualified blind
and visually impaired instructors until well after the enactment of the 1990
AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT. 
The other model for instruction in non-visual travel skills resulted from
the organized blindness movement and was based upon the collective knowledge
of blind persons themselves. Beginning in 1958 Dr. KENNETH JERNIGAN
developed this model, building from the philosophical approach of the
National Federation of the Blind that generated a consumer-driven model of
rehabilitation for the blind. In this model, often referred to as the "Iowa
model," the instructor's role is to assist the student to develop a highly
functional non-visual understanding of the environment and personal
expertise with non-visual travel.  In other words, the body of knowledge,
and the locus of control, are as quickly as possible transferred from the
instructor to the student. This model has since been defined within the
framework of "cognitive learning theory," through the work of Richard
Mettler in 1995 and As a result, this model of Orientation and Mobility is
commonly referred to as "Structured Discovery. This approach now also offers
a university level program for instructor preparation and certification.
Changes in cane use and the educational practices for cane usage reflect
larger historical progressions in disability history. The history of the
long cane demonstrates the powerful links between adaptive devices,
rehabilitation, medical and social interpretations of blindness, as well as
ACTIVISM, COMMUNITY, and EMPOWERMENT. 
 	 
Jeff Altman


See also  ASSISTIVE DEVICES AND ADAPTIVE TECHNOLOGY

Further Reading 	
Hill, P. and P. Ponder. Orientation And Mobility, A Guide For The
Practitioner. New York, American Foundation For The Blind, 1976.
Jernigan, K. "The Nature Of Independence: An Address Delivered To The
National Convention Of: The National Federation Of The Blind." Dallas,
Texas, July 6, 1993.
Kozel, R.  "The History Of O&M." Blinded Veterans Association Bulletin, 1997
Mettler R. "The cognitive paradigm for teaching cane travel :Orientation and
Mobility for Blind People." American Rehabilitation 23, no. 3 (Autumn-Winter
1997): 18-23. 
Olson, C. On The Use Of The Blindfold. Lincoln NE: Nebraska Department of
Public Institutions, Division of Rehabilitation Services for the Visually
Impaired, 1982.
Morais, M. E.,  P. Lorensen, R. Allen,  E. C.Bell, A. Hill, and E. Woods.
Techniques Used By Blind Cane Travel Instructors, A Practical Approach,
Learning, Teaching, Believing. Baltimore, The National Federation of the
Blind, 1997.

President NFB Writers' Division
Robert Leslie Newman
Email- newmanrl at cox.net
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